Tracing Multiple Repairs in L2 Interactions: From Lexical Trouble to Meaning Negotiation

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2025S1A5C3A01007529).

We would like to express our gratitude to the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions.

References

• Alzaidi, O. 2016. An Exploration of Other-Initiated Repair in L2 Video-Mediated Interaction. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Newcastle, UK: Newcastle University.
• Bolden, G. 2012. Across languages and cultures: Brokering problems of understanding in conversational repair. Language in Society 41(1), 97-121. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404511000923]
• Bolden, G. 2024. Correcting others in other-initiated other-repair sequences. Research on Language and Social Interaction 57(2), 193-214. [https://doi.org/10.1080/08351813.2024.2340409]
• Brouwer, C. 2003. Word searches in NNS-NS interaction: Opportunities for language learning? Modern Language Journal 87(4), 534-545. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00206]
• Brouwer, C. 2004. Doing pronunciation: A specific type of repair sequence. In R. Gardner and Wagner, eds.. Second Language Conversations, 93-113. New York: Continuum.
• Brouwer, C., G. Rasmussen and J. Wagner. 2004. Embed corrections in second language talk. In R. Gardner and J. Wagner, eds., Second Language Conversations, 75-92. New York: Continuum.
• Bygate, M. 2009. Teaching and testing speaking. In M. Long and C. Doughty, eds., The Handbook of Language Teaching, 412-440. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444315783.ch23]
• Chen, M. and S. Ye. 2022. Extending repair in peer interaction: A conversation analytic study. Frontiers in Psychology 13, 926842. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.926842]
• Dingemanse, M., J. Blythe and T. Dirksmeyer. 2014. Formats for other-initiation of repair across languages: An exercise in pragmatic typology. Studies in Language 38(1), 5-43. [https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.38.1.01din]
• Drew, P. 1997. ‘Open’ class repair initiators in response to sequential sources of troubles in conversation. Journal of Pragmatics 28(1), 69-101. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(97)89759-7]
• Egbert, M. 2004. Other-initiated repair and membership categorization: Some conversational events that trigger linguistic and regional membership categorization. Journal of Pragmatics 36(8), 1467-1498. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2003.11.007]
• Ellis, R., S. Loewen and R. Erlam. 2006. Implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28(2), 339-368. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060141]
• Ellis, R. and Y. Sheen. 2006. Re-examining the role of recasts in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28(4), 575-600. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226310606027X]
• Eskildsen, S. and T. Cadierno. 2015. Advancing usage-based approaches to L2 studies. In T. Cadierno and S. Eskildsen, eds., Usage-Based Perspectives on Second Language Learning, 1-15. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. [https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110378528-003]
• Eskildsen, S. and G. Thoedorsdottir. 2017. Constructing L2 learning spaces: Ways to achieve learning inside and outside the classroom. Applied Linguistics 38(2), 143-164. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv010]
• Eskildsen, S. and A. Majlesi. 2018. Learnables and teachables in second language talk: Advancing a social reconceptualization of central SLA tenets. Modern Language Journal 102(S1), 3-10. [https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12462]
• Firth, A. 1996. The discursive accomplishment of normality: On ‘lingua franca’ English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics 26(2), 237-259. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(96)00014-8]
• Firth, A. and J. Wagner. 1997. On discourse, communication, and some fundamental concepts in SLA research. Modern Language Journal 81(3), 285-300. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1997.tb05480.x]
• Greer, T. 2013. Word search sequences in bilingual interaction: Codeswitching and embodied orientation toward shifting participant constellation. Journal of Pragmatics 57, 100-117. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.08.002]
• Greer, T. 2014. Word-search sequences in English L2 interactions: Opportunities for language learning? System 48, 27-38.
• Hall, J. 2007. Redressing the roles of correction and repair in research on second and foreign language learning. Modern Language Journal 91(4), 511-526. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00619.x]
• Hall, J. 2018. From L2 interactional competence to L2 interactional repertoires: Reconceptualizing the objects of L2 learning. Classroom Discourse 9(1), 25-39. [https://doi.org/10.1080/19463014.2018.1433050]
• Hall, J. K., J. Hellermann and S. Pekarek Doehler. eds., 2011. L2 Interactional Competence and Development. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. [https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847694072]
• Hall, J. and S. Looney. 2019. The Embodied Work of Teaching. Multilingual Matters. Amsterdam. [https://doi.org/10.21832/HALL5495]
• Hauser, E. 2007. Turn-taking and primary speakership during a student discussion. In S. Pekarek Doehler, P. Seedhouse and G. Kasper, eds., L2 Interactional Competence, 91-114. New York: Macmillan.
• Hauser, E. 2017. Avoiding initiation of repair in L2 conversations-for-learning. Pragmatics 27(2), 235-255. [https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.27.2.03hau]
• Hughes, R. 2017. Teaching and Researching Speaking. New York: Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315692395]
• Hepburn, A. and G. Bolden. 2013. The conversation analytic approach to transcription. In J. Sidnell and T. Stivers, eds., The Handbook of Conversation Analysis, 57-76. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325001.ch4]
• Heritage, J. 2007. Intersubjectivity and progressivity in references to persons and places. In T. Stivers and N. J. Enfield, eds., Person Reference in Interaction: Linguistic, Cultural and Social Perspectives, 255-280. New York: Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486746.012]
• Hosoda, Y. 2001. Conditions for other repair in NS/NNS conversation. The Language Teacher 25(11), 29-31.
• Hosoda, Y. 2006. Repair and relevance of differential language expertise in second language classrooms. Applied Linguistics 27(1), 25-50. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ami022]
• Jefferson, G. 1972. Side sequences. In D. Sudnow, ed., Studies in Social Interaction, 294-338. New York: Free Press.
• Jefferson, G. 1978. Sequential aspects of storytelling in conversation. In J. Schenkein, ed., Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction, 213-248. New York: Academic Press.
• Jefferson, G. 1984. Transcript notation. In M. J. Atkinson and J. Heritage, eds., Structures of Social Action, ix-xvi. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Jefferson, G. 1987. On exposed and embedded correction in conversation. In G. Button and J. Lee, eds., Talk and Social Organization, 86-100. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. [https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.33169485.8]
• Kasper, G. 1985. Repair in foreign language teaching. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 7(2), 200-215. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100005374]
• Kasper, G. 2004. Participant orientations in German conversation-for-learning. Modern Language Journal 88(4), 551-567. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-18-.x]
• Kasper, G. and A. R. Burch. 2016. Focus on form in the wild. In R. A. van Compernolle and J. McGregor, eds., Authenticity, Language and Interaction in Second Language Contexts, 198-332. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. [https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.27080053.13]
• Kasper, G. and Y. Kim. 2007. Handling sequentially inapposite responses. In H. Zhu, P. Seedhouse, L. Wei and V. Cook, eds., Language Learning and Teaching as Social Interaction, 22-41. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230591240_3]
• Kasper, G. and J. Wagner. 2011. A conversation-analytic approach to second language acquisition. In D. Atkinson, ed., Alternative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, 117-142. Mahwah, NJ: Routledge.
• Kendrick, K. 2015. Other-initiated repair in English. Open Linguistics 1(1), 164-190. [https://doi.org/10.2478/opli-2014-0009]
• Kaur, J. 2020. Other-correction in next position: The case of lexical replacement in ELF interactions in an academic setting. Journal of Pragmatics 169(2), 1-12. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2020.06.013]
• Kitzinger, C. 2013. Repair. In J. Sidnell and T. Stivers, eds., The Handbook of Conversation Analysis, 229-256. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325001.ch12]
• Koshik, I. 2002. Designedly incomplete utterances: A pedagogical practice for eliciting knowledge displays in error correction sequences. Research on Language and Social Interaction 35(3), 277-309. [https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327973RLSI3503_2]
• Kormos, J. 2000. The timing of self-repairs in second language speech production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22(2), 145-167. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100002011]
• Kormos, J. 2006. Speech Production and Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Kunitz, S. 2021. Recruiting help in word searches in L2 peer interaction: A multimodal conversation-analytic study. System 103, 102635.
• Kunitz, S. and A. Majlesi. 2022. Multimodal gestalts in reformulating practices in Language cafes. Social Interaction 5(1). Available online at [https://doi.org/10.7146/si.v5i2.130873]
• Kurhila, S. 2006. Second language interaction. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. [https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.145]
• Lee, Y.-A. 2006. Towards respecification of communicative competence: Condition of L2 instruction or its objective? Applied Linguistics 27(3), 349-376. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml011]
• Lee, Y.-A. 2010. Learning in the contingency of talk-in-interaction. Text & Talk 30(4), 403-422. [https://doi.org/10.1515/text.2010.020]
• Lee, Y.-A. 2012. Building connected discourse in nonnative speech: Respecifying nonnative proficiency. Pragmatics 22(4), 519-614.
• Lee, Y.-A. 2013. Descriptions of L2 interaction: Toward descriptive adequacy. Modern Language Journal 97(4), 853-868. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12041.x]
• Lee, Y.-A. 2021. Tracing teachers’ ordering decisions in classroom interaction. In S. Kunitz, N. Markee and O. Sert, eds., Classroom-Based Conversation Analytic Research, 225-251. Gewerbestrasse, Switzerland: Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52193-6_11]
• Lee, Y.-A. and J. Hellerman. 2020. Managing language issues in second language storytelling. System 93, 1-13. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102311]
• Lerner, G. 1991. On the syntax of sentences-in-progress. Language in Society 20(3), 441-458. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500016572]
• Lerner, G. 1996. Finding “face” in the preference structure of talk-in-interaction. Social Psychology Quarterly 59(4), 303-321. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2787073]
• Leyland, C. and J. Riley. 2021. Enhanced English conversations-for-learning: Constructing and using notes for deferred correction. Linguistics and Education 66(4), 100976. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2021.100976]
• Li, W. 2005. “How can you tell”: Towards a common-sense explanation of conversational code-switching. Journal of Pragmatics 37(3), 375-389. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2004.10.008]
• Li, S. and A. Vuono. 2019. Twenty-five years of research on oral and written corrective feedback in System. System 84, 93-109. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.05.006]
• Liebscher, G. and J. Dailey-O’Cain. 2003. Conversational repair as a role-defining mechanism in classroom interaction. Modern Language Journal 87(3), 375-390. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00196]
• Lilja, N. 2014. Partial repetitions as other-initiations of repair in second language talk: Re-establishing understanding and doing learning. Journal of Pragmatics 71(9), 98-116. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2014.07.011]
• Loewen, S. and M. Sato. 2018. Interaction and instructed second language acquisition. Language Teaching 51(3), 285-329. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000125]
• Lyster, R. 2001. Negotiation of form, recasts, and explicit correction in relation to error types and learner repair in immersion classrooms. Language Learning 51(Supplement), 265-301. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.2001.tb00019.x]
• Lyster, R. and L. Ranta. 1997. Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19(1), 37-66. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034]
• Lyster, R. and K. Saito. 2010. Oral feedback in classroom SLA: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32(2), 265-302. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263109990520]
• Mackey, A. 2006. Feedback, noticing and instructed second language learning. Applied Linguistics 27(3), 405-430. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ami051]
• Majlesi, A. R. and S. W. Eskildsen. 2023. Learning in and through repair: A longitudinal study of L2 interaction. Applied Linguistics 44, 321-345.
• Markee, N. 2000. Conversation Analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410606471]
• Markee, N. 2008. Toward a learning behavior tracking methodology for CA-for-SLA. Applied Linguistics 29(3), 404-427. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amm052]
• Markee, N. and S. Kunitz. 2015. CA-for-SLA studies of classroom interaction: Quo Vadis? In N. Markee, ed., The Handbook of Classroom Discourse and Interaction, 425-439. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118531242.ch25]
• Mitchell, C. 1984. Case studies. In R. Ellen, ed., Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct, 237-241. New York: Academic Press.
• Mondada, L. 2014. Conventions for multimodal transcription. Available online at https://franzoesistik.philhist.unibas.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/franzoesistik/mondada_multimodal_conventions.pdf, .
• Mondada, L. and S. Pekarek Doehler. 2004. Second language acquisition as situated practice: Task accomplishment in the French second language classroom. Modern Language Journal 88(4), 501-518. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-15-.x]
• Mortensen, K. 2016. The body of the classroom: Placement, body orientation, and gaze in multiactivity settings. Journal of Pragmatics 100, 117-133.
• Nakamura, I. 2008. Understanding how teacher and student talk with each other: An exploration of how “repair” displays the co-management of talk-in-interaction. Language Teaching Research 12(2), 265-283. [https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168807086295]
• Nassaji, H. 2007. Elicitation and reformulation and their relationship with learner repair in dyadic interaction. Language Learning 57(4), 511-548. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00427.x]
• Olcay, S. 2015. Social Interaction and L2 Classroom Discourse. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
• Pekarek Doehler, S. and E. Berger. 2019. On the reflexive relation between developing L2 interactional competence and evolving social relationships: A longitudinal study of word-searches in the ‘wild.’ In J. Hellermann, S. Eskildesen, S. Pekarek Doehler and A. Piirainen-Marsh, eds., Conversation Analytic Research on Learning-in-Action: The Complex Ecology of L2 Interaction in the Wild, 51-75. Amsterdam: Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22165-2_3]
• Peltonen, P., S. Olkkonen, M. Szyszka and P. Lintunen. 2025. L2 repair fluency through the lenses of L2 repair fluency, cognitive fluency, and language anxiety. Applied Linguistics Review 16(2), 877-899. [https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2023-0011]
• Pomerantz, A. 1984. Agreeing and disagreeing with assessments: Some features of preferred/dispreferred turn shapes. In M. Atkinson and J. Heritage, eds., Structures of Social Action: Studies in Conversation Analysis, 57-101. New York: Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665868.008]
• Raymond, G. and G. Lerner. 2014. A body and its involvement: Adjusting action for different sorts of recipients. In P. Haddington, T. Keisanen, L. Mondada and M. Nevile, eds., Multiactivity in Social Interaction: Beyond Multitasking, 227-246. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Robinson, J. 2006. Managing trouble, responsibility, and relationships during conversational repair. Communication Monographs 73(2), 137-161. [https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750600581206]
• Sacks, H. 1992. Lectures on Conversation: Vol. 2. Cambridge: Blackwell.
• Schegloff, E. 1982. Discourse as an interactional achievement: Some uses of ‘Uh huh’ and other things that come between sentences. In D. Tannen, ed., Georgetown University Roundtable on Language and Linguistics: Analyzing Discourse-Text and Talk, 71-93. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press.
• Schegloff, E. 1992. Repair after next turn: The last structurally provided defense of intersubjectivity in conversation. American Journal of Sociology 97(5), 1295-1345. [https://doi.org/10.1086/229903]
• Schegloff, E. 2000. When ‘others’ initiate repair. Applied Linguistics 21(2), 205-243. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.2.205]
• Schegloff, E. 2007. Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791208]
• Schegloff, E., G. Jefferson and H. Sacks. 1977. The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language 53(2), 363-382. [https://doi.org/10.2307/413107]
• Seedhouse, P. 2004. The Interactional Architecture of the Language Classroom: A Conversation Analysis Perspective. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
• Sert, O. 2013. ‘Epistemic status check’ as an interactional phenomenon in instructed learning settings. Journal of Pragmatics 45, 13-28. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2012.10.005]
• Sert, O. 2015. Social Interaction and L2 Classroom Discourse. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University. [https://doi.org/10.1515/9780748692651]
• Sert, O. 2017. Creating opportunities for L2 learning in a prediction activity. System 70, 14-25. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.08.008]
• Stivers, T. and J. Robinson. 2006. A preference for progressivity in interaction. Language in Society 35(3), 367-392. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404506060179]
• Waring, H. 2008. Using explicit positive assessment in the language classroom: IRF, feedback, and learning opportunities. Modern Language Journal 92(4), 577-594. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00788.x]
• Waring, H. 2009. Moving out of IRF initiation-response-feedback: A single case analysis. Language Learning 59(4), 796-824. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00526.x]
• Waring, H. 2011. Learner initiatives and learning opportunities in the language classroom. In J. Hellermann and S. Pekarek Doehler, eds., L2 Interactional Competence and Development, 97-114. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
• Waring, H. 2012. “Any questions?”: Investigating the nature of understanding checks in the language classroom. TESOL Quarterly 46(4), 722-752. [https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.48]
• Wong, J. 2000. Delayed next turn repair initiation in native/non-native speaker English conversation. Applied Linguistics 21(1), 244-267. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.2.244]
• Wong, J. and H. Waring. 2021. Conversation Analysis and Second Language Pedagogy: A Guide for ESL/EFL Teachers. New York: Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429488023]
• Xu, M. and J. Zeng. 2023. Optimal timing of treatment for errors in second language learning: A systematic review of corrective feedback timing. Frontiers in Psychology 14, 1026274. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1026174]