Exploring Differences in Korean EFL Students’ English Reading Fluency from Their L2 Learning and Reading Experiences

References

• Adams, W. C. 2015. Conducting semi-structured interviews. In K. E. Newcomer, H. P. Hatry and J. S. Wholey, eds., Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation, 492-505. Jossey-Bass. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch19]
• Alderson, J. C. 1984. Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson and A. H. Urquhart, eds., Reading in a Foreign Language, 1-24. Longman.
• Anderson, R. C., P. T. Wilson and L. G. Fielding. 1988. Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. Reading Research Quarterly 23(3), 285-303. [https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.23.3.2]
• Beglar, D and A. Hunt. 2014. Pleasure reading and reading rate gains. Reading in a Foreign Language 26(1), 29-48. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66684]
• Benjamin, R. G., P. J. Schwanenflugel., E. B. Meisinger., C. Groff., M. R. Kuhn and L. Steiner. 2013. A spectrographically grounded scale for evaluating reading expressiveness. Reading Research Quarterly 48(2), 105-133. [https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.43]
• Bernhardt, E. 2005. Progress and procrastination in second language reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 133-150. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190505000073]
• Bernhardt, E. B. 2011. Understanding Advanced Second-Language Reading. Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203852408]
• Bernhardt, E. B and M. L. Kamil. 1995. Interpreting relationships between L1 and L2 reading: Consolidating the linguistic threshold and linguistic interdependence hypotheses. Applied Linguistics 16(1), 15-34. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/16.1.15]
• Betts, E. A. 1946. Foundations of Reading Instruction, with Emphasis on Differentiated Guidance. American Book
• Braun, V and V. Clarke. 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2), 77-101. [https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa]
• Brimo, D., K. Apel and T. Fountain. 2017. Examining the contributions of syntactic awareness and syntactic knowledge to reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading 40(1), 57-74. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12050]
• Brisbois, J. E. 1995. Connections between first- and second-language reading. Journal of Reading Behavior 27(4), 565-584. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10862969509547899]
• Buccella, A. 2024. Leveled, decodable, readable: What does research say about the right texts for your beginning readers? Great Minds. Available online at https://greatminds.org/english/blog/geodes/leveled-decodable-readable-what-does-research-say-about-the-right-texts-for-your-beginning-readers
• Carlisle, J. F and M. M. Beeman. 2000. The effects of language of instruction on the reading and writing achievement of first-grade Hispanic children. Scientific Studies of Reading 4(4), 331-353. [https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0404_5]
• Carrell, P. L. 1991. Second language reading: Reading ability or language proficiency? Applied Linguistics 12(2), 159-179. [https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/12.2.159]
• Chall, J. S. 1996. Stages of Reading Development. 2nd ed. Harcourt Brace.
• Chapman, J and W. Tunmer. 1995. Development of young children’s reading self-concepts: An examination of emerging subcomponents and their relationship with reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 87(1), 154-167. [https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.87.1.154]
• Choi, Y. 2023. Consistency of 2015 revised national curriculum, textbooks, and CSAT according to CEFR levels: Focusing on English reading passages. English Teaching 78(1), 271-291. [https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.78.1.202303.271]
• CDhanapala, K. V. 2008. Motivation and L2 reading behaviors of university students in Japan and Sri Lanka. Journal of International Development and Cooperation 14(1), 1-11. [https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.78.1.202303.271]
• Ehri, L. C. 1995. Phases of development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading 18(2), 116-125. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.1995.tb00077.x]
• Evans, M. A., D. Shaw and M. Bell. 2000. Home literacy activities and their influence on early literacy skills. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 54(2), 65-75. [https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087330]
• Favreau, M and N. S. Segalowitz. 1982. Second language reading in fluent bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics 3(4), 329-341. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400004264]
• Foorman, B. R., D. J. Francis., J. M. Fletcher., C. Schatschneider and P. Mehta. 1998. The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology 90(1), 37-55. [https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.90.1.37]
• Fuchs, L. S., D. Fuchs., M. K. Hosp and J. R. Jenkins. 2001. Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3), 239-256. [https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0503_3]
• Georgiou, G. K., M. Aro., C. H. Liao and R. Parrila. 2016. Modeling the relationship between rapid automatized naming and literacy skills across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 143, 48-64. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.10.017]
• Good III, R. H and R. A. Kaminski. 2002. DIBELS™ (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills). Sopris West.
• Gough, P. B and W. E. Tunmer. 1986. Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education 7(1), 6-10. [https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104]
• Grabe, W. 2009. Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice. Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139150484]
• Grabe, W. 2010. Fluency in reading—Thirty-five years later. Reading in a Foreign Language 22(1), 71-83. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66645]
• Grabe, W and F. L. Stoller. 2013. Teaching and Researching Reading, 2nd ed., Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833743]
• Grabe, W and J. Yamahita. 2022. Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice. Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108878944]
• Gorsuch, G and E. Taguchi. 2010. Developing reading fluency and comprehension using repeated reading: Evidence from longitudinal student reports. Language Teaching Research 14(1), 27-59. [https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168809346494]
• Guthrie, J. T and A. Wigfield. 1999. How motivation fits into a science of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading 3(3), 199-205. [https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0303_1]
• Guthrie, J. T., A. L. W. Hoa., A. Wigfield., S. M. Tonks., N. M. Humenick and E. Littles. 2007. Reading motivation and reading comprehension growth in the later elementary years. Contemporary Educational Psychology 32(3), 282-313. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.05.004]
• Han, H. S. 2007. Family Influence on Children’s Second Language Literacy Building: A Case Study of Korean Families. Doctoral dissertation. Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
• Hansen, J. H., G. Eckstein., T. L. Cox., S. G. Luke and K. Rich. 2024. Immediate repeated reading has positive effects on reading rate for English language learners: An eye‐tracking study. TESOL Journal 00, e822. [https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.822]
• Hasbrouck, J. E and G. A. Tindal. 1992. Curriculum-based oral reading fluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5. Teaching Exceptional Children 24(3), 41-44. [https://doi.org/10.1177/004005999202400310]
• Hasbrouck, J. E and G. A. Tindal. 2006. Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher 59(7), 636-644. [https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.7.3]
• Hasbrouck, J. E and G. A. Tindal. 2017. An Update to Compiled ORF Norms (Technical Report No. 1702). Behavioral Research and Teaching.
• Haynes, M and T. H. Carr. 1990. Writing system background and second language reading: A component skills analysis of English reading by native-speaking readers of Chinese. In T. H. Carr and B. A. Levy, eds., Reading and Its Development: Component Skills Approaches, 375-421. Academic Press.
• He, M. F. 2014. Does extensive reading promote reading speed? The Reading Matrix 14(1), 16-25.
• Hidi, S. 1990. Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review of Educational Research 60(4), 549-571. [https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543060004549]
• Hoover, W. A and P. B. Gough. 1990. The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing 2(2), 127-160. [https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401799]
• Hwang, I and B. Lee. 2023. Textbook-based L2 oral reading fluency of lower-level 8th grade EFL students and its association with L2 reading comprehension. The SNU Journal of Education Research 32(2), 33-53. [https://doi.org/10.54346/sjer.2023.32.2.33]
• Ismail, H. N., M. R. Ahmadi and A. P. Gilakjani, 2012. The role of reciprocal teaching strategy as an important factor of improving reading motivation. Elixir International Journal 53, 11836-11841.
• Jeon, E. H. 2012. Oral reading fluency in second language reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 24(2), 186-208. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66860]
• Jeon, E. Y and R. R. Day. 2016. The effectiveness of extensive reading on reading proficiency: A meta-analysis. Reading in a Foreign Language 28(2), 246-265. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66901]
• Jeon, E. H and J. Yamashita. 2014. L2 reading comprehension and its correlates: A meta‐analysis. Language Learning 64(1), 160-212. [https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12034]
• Jiang, X. 2016. The role of oral reading fluency in ESL reading comprehension among learners of different first language backgrounds. Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal 16(2), 227-242.
• Kang, Y. 2020. Relative contribution of reading fluency and vocabulary knowledge in predicting Korean EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of Asia TEFL 17(3), 778-790. [https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.3.2.778]
• Katzir, T., N. K. Lesaux and Y. S. Kim. 2009. The role of reading self-concept and home literacy practices in fourth grade reading comprehension. Reading and Writing 22(5), 437-456. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9112-8]
• Kim, K. J. 2011. Reading motivation in two languages: An examination of EFL college students in Korea. Reading and Writing 24(8), 861-881. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9229-z]
• Kim, J. E. 2025. What makes a “killer question” killer? A text mining analysis of high-difficulty questions in the Korean CSAT English section. English Teaching 80(3), 3-22. [https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.80.3.202509.3]
• Kim, W. J and D. Yim. 2024. Exploring the influence of the home literacy environment on early literacy and vocabulary skills in Korean-English bilingual children. Frontiers in Psychology 15, 1336292. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1336292]
• Kim, Y. S. G. 2020. Toward integrative reading science: The direct and indirect effects model of reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities 53(6), 469-491. [https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420908239]
• Kim, Y. S. G., J. R. Cho and S. G. Park. 2018. Unpacking direct and indirect relations of short-term memory, RAN, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and orthographic awareness to word reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities 51(5), 473-481. [https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417724817]
• Kim, Y. S., R. K. Wagner and E. Foster. 2011. Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension: A latent variable study of first-grade readers. Scientific Studies of Reading 15(4), 338-362. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.493964]
• Kintsch, W. 1988. The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review 95(2), 163–182. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.163]
• Kintsch, W. 1998. Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. Cambridge University Press.
• Koda, K. 1996. L2 word recognition research: A critical review. The Modern Language Journal 80(4), 450-460. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1996.tb05465.x]
• Koda, K. 2007. Impacts of prior literacy experience on second language learning to read. In K. Koda, ed., Learning to Read Across Languages, 80-108. Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203935668-11]
• Kuhn, M. R., P. J. Schwanenflugel and E. B. Meisinger. 2010. Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly 45(2), 230-251. [https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.2.4]
• Kwon, S. K., M. Lee and D. Shin. 2015. Educational assessment in the Republic of Korea: Lights and shadows of high-stake exam-based education system. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice 24(1), 60-77. [https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2015.1074540]
• LaBerge, D and S. J. Samuels. 1974. Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology 6(2), 293-323. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2]
• Laufer, B. 1992. How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? In P. L. Arnaud and H. Bejoint, eds., Vocabulary and Applied Linguistics. 126-132. Macmillian Academic & Professional. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-12396-4_12]
• Lee, J. W and D. L. Schallert. 1997. The relative contribution of L2 language proficiency and L1 reading ability to L2 reading performance: A test of the threshold hypothesis in an EFL context. TESOL Quarterly 31(4), 713-739. [https://doi.org/10.2307/3587757]
• Logan, G. D. 1997. Automaticity and reading: Perspectives from the instance theory of automatization. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties 13(2), 123-146. [https://doi.org/10.1080/1057356970130203]
• Marsh, G., M. P. Friedman., P. Desberg and K. Saterdahl. 1981. Comparison of reading and spelling strategies in normal and reading disabled children. In M. P. Friedman, J. P. Das and N. O'Connor, eds., Intelligence and Learning, 363-367. Plenum Press. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-1083-9_33]
• Moll, K., F. Ramus., J. Bartling., J. Bruder., S. Kunze., N. Neuhoff., ... and K. Landerl. 2014. Cognitive mechanisms underlying reading and spelling development in five European orthographies. Learning and Instruction 29, 65-77. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.003]
• Nation, P. 2015. Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 27(1) 136-145. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66705]
• National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
• Paris, S. G. 2002. Measuring children’s reading development using leveled texts. The Reading Teacher 56(2), 168-170.
• Paris, S. G., A. H. Paris and R. D. Carpenter. 2002. Effective practices for assessing young readers. In B. Taylor and P. D. Pearson, eds., Teaching Reading: Effective Schools, Accomplished Teachers. 141-160. Erlbaum.
• Park, A., T. Isaacs and H. Woodfield. 2018. A comparison of the effects of extensive and intensive reading approaches on the vocabulary development of Korean secondary EFL learners. Applied Linguistics Review 9(1), 113-134. [https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2017-0025]
• Perfetti, C. A. 1985. Reading Ability. Oxford University Press.
• Perfetti, C. A. 1999. Comprehending written language: A blueprint of the reader. In C. M. Brown and P. Hagoort, eds., The Neurocognition of Language, 167-208. Oxford University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198507932.003.0006]
• Perfetti, C and J. Stafura. 2013. Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading 18(1), 22-37. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687]
• Pulido, D and D. Z. Hambrick. 2008. The “virtuous” circle: Modeling individual differences in L2 reading and vocabulary development. Reading in a Foreign Language 20(2), 164-190. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66821]
• Qian, D. D and M. Schedl. 2004. Evaluation of an in-depth vocabulary knowledge measure for assessing reading performance. Language Testing 21, 28-52. [https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532204lt273oa]
• Quirk, M., P. J. Schwanenflugel and M. Y. Webb. 2009. A short-term longitudinal study of the relationship between motivation to read and reading fluency skill in second grade. Journal of Literacy Research, 41(2), 196-227. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10862960902908467]
• Rasinski, T. V. 2012. Why reading fluency should be hot!. The Reading Teacher 65(8), 516-522. [https://doi.org/10.1002/TRTR.01077]
• Rasinski, T. V., A. Rikli and S. Johnston. 2012. Reading fluency: More than automaticity? More than a concern for the primary grades? Literacy Research and Instruction 51(1), 62-76.
• Reed, J. H and D. L. Schallert. 1993. The nature of involvement in academic discourse tasks. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(2) 253-266. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.2.253]
• Roe, B and P. C. Burns. 2010. Informal Reading Inventory: Preprimer to Twelfth Grade. Cengage Learning.
• Ryu, J and B. Lee. 2021. Diagnosis of Korean EFL high school students’ reading fluency using informal reading inventory. Journal of Asia TEFL 18(2), 489-504. [https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2021.18.2.7.489]
• Schiefele, U. 1991. Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist 26(3-4), 299-323. [https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653136]
• Schoonen, R., J. Hulstijn and B. Bossers. 1998. Metacognitive and language-specific knowledge in native and foreign language reading comprehension: An empirical study among Dutch students in grades 6, 8, and 10. Language Learning 48(1), 71-106. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00033]
• Segalowitz, N. 2003. Automaticity and second languages. In C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long, eds., The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 382-408. Blackwell. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756492.ch13]
• Segalowitz, N and S. J. Segalowitz. 1993. Skilled performance, practice, and the differentiation of speed-up from automatization effects: Evidence from second language word recognition. Applied Psycholinguistics 14(3), 369-385. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400010845]
• Shanahan, T. 2019. Which texts for teaching reading: Decodable, predictable, or controlled vocabulary? Shanahan on Literacy. Available online at https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/which-texts-for-teaching-reading-decodable-predictable-or-controlled-vocabulary
• Shin, J and K. McMaster. 2019. Relations between CBM (oral reading and maze) and reading comprehension on state achievement tests: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology 73, 131-149. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.03.005]
• Shinn, M. R., M. M. Shinn., C. Hamilton and B. Clarke. 2002. Using curriculum-based measurement in general education classrooms to promote reading success. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker and G. Stoner, eds., Interventions for Academic and Behavior Problems II: Preventive and Remedial Approaches. 113-142. National Association of School Psychologists.
• Snow, C. E., M. S. Burns and P. Griffin. eds., 1998. Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. National Academy Press.
• Stanovich, K. E. 1980. Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly 16(1), 32-71. [https://doi.org/10.2307/747348]
• Stanovich, K. E. 1986. Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly 21(4), 360-407. [https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.21.4.1]
• Strauss, A and J. Corbin. 1998. Basics of Qualitative Research Techniques. Sage.
• Taylor, B. M., B. J. Frye and G. M. Maruyama. 1990. Time spent reading and reading growth. American Educational Research Journal 27(2), 351-362. [https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312027002351]
• Vaessen, A and L. Blomert. 2010. Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 105(3), 213-231. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.005]
• Van Gelderen, A., R. Schoonen., R. D. Stoel., K. De Glopper and J. Hulstijn. 2007. Development of adolescent reading comprehension in language 1 and language 2: A longitudinal analysis of constituent components. Journal of Educational Psychology 99(3), 477-491. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.477]
• Wiederhold, J. L and B. R. Bryant. 2012. Gray Oral Reading Tests-Version 5 (GORT-5). PRO-ED.
• Wigfield, A. 1997. Children’s motivations for reading and reading engagement. In J. T. Guthrie and A. Wigfield, eds., Reading Engagement: Motivating Readers Through Integrated Instruction, 14-33. International Reading Association.
• Wigfield, A and J. T. Guthrie. 1997. Relations of children’s motivation for reading to the amount and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology 89(3), 420-432 [https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.89.3.420]
• Wigfield, A., J. R. Gladstone and L. Turci. 2016. Beyond cognition: Reading motivation and reading comprehension. Child Development Perspectives 10(3), 190-195. [https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12184]
• Wolf, M and T. Katzir-Cohen. 2001. Reading fluency and its intervention. In M. Wolf, ed., The Role of Fluency in Reading Competence, Assessment, and Instruction, 211-238. Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410608246-2]
• Yamashita, J. 2004. Reading attitudes in L1 and L2, and their influence on L2 extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 16(1), 1-19. [https://doi.org/10.64152/10125/66597]
• Yousefi, M. H and R. Biria. 2018. The effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction: A meta-analysis. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education 3(1), 1-19. [https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-018-0062-2]